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4.117. Production of coal was 0.68 million tonnes of oil equivalent (MTOE) in 2017 (i.e. 0.16% of Japan's Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)), while imports accounted for 114.78 MTOE. Imports of coal increased after the Fukushima nuclear accident (from 23% of the primary energy supply in 2010 to 25% in 2017, and from 28% of the power generation in 2010 to 32% in 2017). This was due to the fact that coal constitutes a relatively cheap source of energy for power generation. However, it emits a considerable amount of greenhouse gases, which runs counter to the reduction objectives undertaken in the context of the Paris Convention. The Government intends to keep coal as a major source of energy, since it is expected to represent 25% of the total primary energy source in 2030 and 26% of electricity production, while encouraging the adoption of technologies reducing emissions, such as Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, Ultra Super Critical pressure, and Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage.

4.124. The share of oil and oil products in the TPES was 43.0% in 2015, 41.5% in 2016, and 39.0% in 2017. It is planned to decrease this to 33% by 2030. Its share in power generation, which was 9% in 2017, is also planned to be decreased, to 3% by 2030. These planned decreases are largely voluntary, and can be explained by the geopolitical uncertainties surrounding this source of energy and the subsequent wide price variations it registers, as well as the plan to switch to fewer or no greenhouses gas-emitting sources of energy.

4.129. (...) Ongoing and future technological developments regarding gas include co generation systems, the use of natural gas as a source of hydrogen, and combined cycle thermal power generation using biogases.

4.136. The chart shows a parallel evolution of crude oil prices and electricity prices. This explains why Japan is planning to reduce the share of oil in power generation from 9% to 3%. It also illustrates why the Government wants to restore the share of nuclear energy in the power generation mix by 2030 to 22%-20%. So far, nine reactors have been authorized to restart, and six more are planned to be authorized in the coming months. This restored a 1% share of nuclear energy within Japan's total TPES for FY2017.

4.143. Regarding pricing and support scheme issues, the METI announced, in August 2019, a major reform of the FIT system, adopted in 2012, to promote greater development of renewable energy. Under the 2012 system, solar and wind energy is purchased at predetermined prices. (...) For other power sources used, the basic framework of the FIT system will be maintained for the time being. In addition, the reform is aimed at optimizing the renewable energy sector, by ensuring safety and by disposing of waste solar panels appropriately, and by developing a transmission network suitable for mainstreaming renewable energy.

4.216. The Maritime Bureau in the MLIT is responsible for maritime shipping policy and national legislation. It also represents Japan at the International Maritime Organization, which sets the worldwide standards for safety, security and environmental norms for maritime transport.

4.245. Following standard practice for TPR reports, and for the purpose of this Section, environmental services should be understood as covering sewage services, refuse disposal services, sanitation services, cleaning services of exhaust gases, noise-abatement services, nature and landscape protection services, and other environmental protection services. Fresh water distribution services/water utilities are also covered in this Section, as this type of service is technically bundled with sewage services, and uses, at least partly, the same infrastructure as sewage services.

4.246. This list covers basically three types of services. The first group is constituted by services linked to the provision of basic public services, with natural monopoly characteristics (water utilities/distribution, sewage, consumer waste disposal and sanitation services, such as snow- and ice-clearing services). These services are regulated by various acts, described below, which entrust municipalities, or grouping of municipalities, with the provision of these services to the general public. However, they were modified in recent years, to allow the creation of PPPs, whereby municipalities can delegate the management of those services to the private sector. A second group is composed of services that are delivered mainly by private companies (industrial waste management, cleaning services of exhaust gases, and noise-abatement services). These sectors are regulated at both national and local levels, essentially on questions of safety and norms. Finally, nature landscape and protection services constitute the third group, which is regulated at both national and local levels; the bulk of the regulation consists of environmental norms. The Ministry of the Environment is the main regulator of the environmental services sector. The MLIT is the main regulator of the sewage sector.

4.255. Waste water treatment/sewage services are regulated by the Sewage Water Act No. 79 of 1958, which attributes the competence of providing sewage services to municipalities. Municipalities can, in turn, delegate part or all of the management of sewage systems and facilities to the private sector under various forms of contractual arrangements; no less than 90% of sewage treatment facilities operation are delegated to the private sector.

4.258. The main policy objective of waste management services is to limit the volume of waste disposal, reduce the consumption of natural resources, and promote the sustainable use of resources (Box 4.8).